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How long these antibodies last, and whether a person is capable of producing them in the first place, all depends on immune system function.

'Your immune system is not just antibodies.' 'What you want is to get the 'memory' part of your immune system to work, so the B cells and the T cells,' Brown says. Once the vaccine has trained the immune system, these memory cells remain dormant in the body for long periods of time.

The vaccinated immune system uses these cells to help create neutralizing antibodies. In order for the immune system to recognize and ward off the actual coronavirus, it must have a reserve of memory lymphocytes, called the B cells and T cells. The single-dose Johnson & Johnson vaccine, which is a viral vector vaccine, trains the body's defense network in a similar way, but uses a deactivated virus to do so instead of genetic material. The Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna vaccines, which are mRNA vaccines, teach cells to create a portion of the coronavirus spike protein, which then triggers the immune system to respond so that it's ready if the real virus shows up. That means that the immune system may be less likely to respond to other threats due to the repeated activation, Brown says.Д«oth types of shots-messenger RNA (mRNA) and viral vector-work to get the immune system to recognize a threat without actually infecting a person with a virus or other pathogen. 'Theoretically, if you give too many vaccines in too short a time period, it can decrease or dampen the immune response, rather than increase it,' says Todd Brown, vice chair of the Department of Pharmacy and Health Systems at Northeastern. Which begs the question: Is it possible to overstimulate the immune system with too many jabs?

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officials have been talking about the need for a second booster, or a fourth shot, to follow the two-dose regimen of Pfizer-BioNTech or Moderna plus the initial booster. But those with compromised immune systems fear a second or third shot may not induce an immune system response adequate to provide protection, leading some to seek out unauthorized fourth-and even fifth-shots.

That's why many are scrambling to get boosted. Health officials and the public at large are now leaning heavily on the protections conferred by the vaccines to keep hospitalizations and deaths at bay. Unlike earlier phases of the pandemic, large-scale government interventions such as lockdowns and business closures have fallen off-even as the country logs record-breaking caseloads by the day.